French Essays Affaire Dreyfus

French Essays Affaire Dreyfus Discuter là ©volutiondes intellectuels francais depuis laffaire Dreyfus Pendantplus quun sià ¨cle, la prà ©sence des intellectuels en France est sans doute trà ¨simportante. Ils ont un rà ´le influent dans la socià ©tà © franaise et les nomscomme Zola, Sartre, Là ©vy et Debray sont connus partout dans le monde. Biensà »r, les intellectuels ne se trouvent pas seulement en France, mais il estprobablement l, avec ses grandes à ©coles et la culture de discussionintellectuelle dans les cafà ©s, oà ¹ on trouvera ceux qui ont le plus de respectet le plus dinfluence. La position de lintellectuel franais au sein de lasocià ©tà © franaise est significative. La France est fià ¨re de ceux qui donnentune voix au peuple dans un pays avec une histoire parfois anarchiste. Laprà ©sence des intellectuels tout moment important pendant le dernier sià ¨cle,ainsi que leurs contributions aux discussions politiques et sociales montrecombien lopinion des intellectuels est importante. Cependant,on verra que la position de lintellegensia a beaucoup changà © au cours dusià ¨cle. À laube dun nouveau millenium, il est aujourdhui que lesintellectuels franais se trouvent dans une situation inconnue. Est-ce quilssont destinà ©s de devenir perdu dans un monde dominà © par les nouvellestechnologies, oà ¹ est-ce que leurs dà ©clarations portent la mà ªme signification aujourdhuiquil y a cent ans? Laffaire Dreyfus et la naissance de lintellectuel Onpeut datà © exactement le moment oà ¹ le terme intellectuel est entrà © danslhistoire. Le13 janvier 1898, Georges Clemanceau, rà ©dacteur du journal radical LAurorepublie une lettre adressà ©e au Prà ©sident du Troisià ¨me Republique. La lettresappelle Jaccuse, et il sagit dun capitaine juif danslarmà ©e franaise, Alfred Dreyfus. En 1895, celui-ci est condamnà © peine devie pour la trahison et lespionnage. En fait, Dreyfus nà ©tait pas coupable,mais vu que lantisà ©mitisme fut trà ¨s populaire cette à ©poque-l, Dreyfus estsoumis une injustice extrà ªme. Là ©glise, là ©tat, et les mà ©dias lecondamnent, mais en effet, il à ©tait une victime des sentiments anti-sà ©mitiques. Aprà ¨ssa dà ©portation là ®le du Diable en 1895, la famille de Dreyfus essaie de lelibà ©rà ©, mais sans succà ¨s. Finalement, son pà ¨re à ©crit au à ©crivain, Emile Zola.Celui-ci devient donc le dà ©fenseur de Dreyfus, cest une personne cà ©là ¨bre etrespectà ©e avec une voix forte dans un climat anti-sà ©mitique. Zola accuse uneautre personne, Walsin Esterhazy, et il accuse le militaire et là ©tat duneconspiration contre Dreyfus. Pendant les semaines suivantes, la campagne deZola attire les autres personnages respectà ©s qui incluent les intellectuels etles à ©crivains comme Marcel Proust et Andrà © Gide. à ©videment, sur lautrecà ´te, il existe aussi les adversaires de Zola, ceux qui croyaient que là ©tatet là ©glise à ©taient suprà ªmes, et que de les remettre en cause à ©taient latrahison elle-mà ªme. En 1899 Zola est condamnà © aussi, et il sest mis en exileen Angleterre. Laffaireest donc divisà © en deux divisions opposantes, les Dreyfusards, Zola, Proust,Anatole France et Eduard Drumont (rà ©dacteur du journal la LibreParole) qui soutiennent Alfred Dreyfus, et qui luttent sans cessepour sa libà ©ration. Les antidreyfusards prennent la position adversaire, etils incluent Alphonse et Là ©on Daudet, Barrà ©s, Copà ©e, et Bourget. Aprà ¨s six ansde lutte, Alfred Dreyfus est libà ©rà ©, la victoire pour les Dreyfusards nestpas seulement une victoire pour Dreyfus, mais aussi pour tous les gens quiavaient à ©tà © maltraità ©s par là ©tat, mais qui auparavant navait aucun moyen dese dà ©fendre. Ilest à ©vident que les actions des Dreyfusards et la lutte menà ©e, et gagnà ©e contrelà ©tat ouvrent la porte aux intellectuels franais. Cependant, on verra quece chapitre nest quun dà ©but, et que le rà ´le des intellectuels à ©volue au coursdu sià ¨cle. La dà ©finition dun intellectuel Aprà ¨slaffaire Dreyfus, peut-à ªtre croit-on quil est facile de comprendre le rà ´ledes intellectuels dans la socià ©tà © franaise. On peut les dà ©crire comme lesdà ©fendeurs des droits de lhomme, les champions de la và ©rità ©, mais cesdescriptions sont probablement trop simplistes. Un intellectuel nest passeulement quelquun avec une bonne à ©ducation, sinon on pourrait dire que tousles à ©crivains, les journalistes, les universitaires sont les intellectuels,ceci nest pas le cas. Dà ªtre un intellectuel du mà ªme genre de Zola, il fautquelque chose de plus. Il faut quun intellectuel utilise son nom et sonprestige pour sengager dans une actività © au dehors de son domainedexpertise. Lintellectuelsera un homme du culturel; crà ©ature ou mà ©diateur, mis en situationdhomme du politique, producteur ou consommateur didà ©ologie. Ni un simplecatà ©gorie socioprofessionnelle, ni un simple personnage irrà ©ductible. Ilsagira dun statut, comme dans la dà ©finition sociologique, mains transcendà ©par une volontà © individuelle, comme dans la dà ©finition à ©thique, et tournà © versun usage collectif   Grà ¢ce leur intelligence et leur à ©ducation supà ©rieure, les intellectuels commandentdu respect et leurs opinions sont estimà ©es, souvent plus que celles des hommesde politique. Bien quil soit probablement naÃÆ' ¯f, il est vrai de dire que lesgens sont mà ©fiants de ceux-ci, pendant que les intellectuels sont considà ©rà ©scomme impartiaux. Au cours du sià ¨cle Ilparait que laffaire Dreyfus marque la vraie naissance du mouvementintellectuel en France, mà ªme si Zola nest pas vraiment le premierintellectuel individuel. Victor Hugo est son inspiration et là ©crivain Jacquesle Goff a à ©crit un livre au sujet des intellectuels en France mà ©dià ©velle.Toutefois, laffaire Dreyfus remonte le profil de lintellectuel, et il estun profil qui est paru de plus en plus pendant le vingtià ¨me sià ¨cle. Dansles annà ©es suivantes, les intellectuels franais interviennent souvent dansles discussions. Pendant la premià ¨re guerre mondiale, les intellectuelspacifistes comme Henri Barbusse et Romain Rolland essayent douvrir les yeuxdes franais aux atroces commis pendant la guerre. Barbusse, dans son livre  Le feu, journal dune escouade   raconte sesexpà ©riences du feu des tranchà ©es, et il y exprime ses aspirations pacifistes. Enplein conflit mondial, il apparaà ®t un mouvement surrà ©aliste. Autour du poà ¨teromain, Tristan Tzara, le cosmopolitisme du groupe est dà ©j une provocation.La date de naissance officielle du mouvement surrà ©aliste est en 1924 et pendantles annà ©es vingt ce groupe de jeunes artistes essaie de   bouleverser lavie   et   libà ©rer lesprit  . Ils soutiennent la lutte contreloccupation des colonies. Le surrà ©aliste Louis Aragon annonce son oppositionet quitte le mouvement, disant que lart devrait reprà ©senter la socià ©tà © commeelle à ©tait, il voulait dire que le mouvement surrà ©aliste devrait à ªtre partisanet dà ©fendeur du parti communiste (PCF). Le communisme et le fascisme Pendantles annà ©es trente, face la menace du fascisme, un groupe dintellectuelsfranais sunissent. Ils participent dans les comità ©s et les confà ©rences etsignent les pà ©titions contre le fascisme. Pendant loccupation nazie de laFrance, ce groupe dintellectuels travaillent en secret sur le nom du  Comità © national des à ©crivains   pour rà ©sister au   NouvelOrdre  , soutenu par les intellectuels opposà ©s, comme Pierre Drieu LaRochelle et Louis-Ferdinand Cà ©line. Lexpà ©riencede la Rà ©sistance pendant la guerre souligne exactement le rà ´le desintellectuels, mais la distinction entre les opinions universelles et lapolitique commence devenir confusà ©e. Le philosophe Julien Benda se plaignede la trahison des intellectuels qui donnent leur soutien en faveur desidà ©ologies politiques au lieu des idà ©ologies universelles. À cette à ©poque-l,lun des intellectuels le plus cà ©là ¨bres fait sa marque sur lhistoirefranaise. Jean-Paul Sartre souligne le rà ´le et la responsabilità © delintellectuel franais. Dans son ouvrage,   Quest-ce que lalittà ©rature  ? (1948)  , Sartre encourage lintellectuel franaisdagir selon la situation dans laquelle il se trouve. Sartre lui-mà ªme montreson engagement en à ©crivant des pà ©titions et des lettres sur plusieurs problà ¨mes,en particulier en ce qui concerne la guerre en Algà ©rie oà ¹ il mà ¨ne une campagnecontre la guerre elle-mà ªme, et, en particulier la torture. Mà ªmesi lon pense de lintellectuel comme dà ©fendeur des idà ©ologies universelles,les intellectuels sont toujours sur une grande pression dappartenir un partipolitique. Il est cette pression qui endommage la rà ©putation du mouvementintellectuel pendant les annà ©es suivantes. Sartre nappartient pas un partipolitique, il cherche trouver un compromis entre le capitalisme occidental etle politique de Stalin. Mà ªme sil ny appartient pas officiellement, Sartresoutient le PCF. Dautres intellectuels ne sont pas aussi timides avec leursaffiliations politiques, Aragon, à ©luard et Guillevic soutiennent ouvertement lePCF et Stalin. Les intellectuels communistes se collaborent avec lennemipendant loccupation nazie, et cette collaboration sape de plus la rà ©putationimpartiele des intellectuels. Raymon Aron est un intellectuel qui na pas la fascinationavec le marxisme en commun avec ses pairs, mais il est une figure solitairedans un pays oà ¹ le communisme est populaire. Il nest pas daccord avec unegrande majorità © des intellectuels et sa dissertation,   LOpium desintellectuels   (1955) oppose aux idà ©ologies communistes. Il estaprà ¨s linvasion de la Hongrie par la Russie que Sartre et les autresintellectuels retirent leur soutien du PCF, mais ils se tournent vers lesnouveaux rà ©gimes en Chine et au Cuba. Che Guevara est devenu une figureimportante pour les intellectuels. Les annà ©es 60-70 Lesà ©và ©nements de mai 1968 sont vus comme un succà ¨s pour les intellectuels. Il esteux, et non pas les ouvriers, qui provoquent les troubles. Mais on doit aussinoter que bien que cette à ©poque soit considà ©rà ©e comme un succà ¨s, lesà ©và ©nements soulignent aussi une division profonde entre les ouvriers et lesintellectuels. Pendantles annà ©es 70, les intellectuels interviennent dans plusieurs domaines, enparticulier les problà ¨mes concernant les paysans, les prisonniers, et lesouvriers immigrà ©s. Comme dans les annà ©es prà ©cà ©dentes, les intellectuelsessaient de donner une voix aux groupes pià ©tinà ©s mais il semble que plusieursde ces interventions naient pas beaucoup de succà ¨s. Il y a quelquesexceptions quand mà ªme, en 1971, le journal le Nouvel observateur publieun manifeste important. Simone de Beauvoir est parmi 343 femmes qui dà ©clarentde se faire avorter  ; ce manifeste mà ¨ne un changement là ©gislatif, lesfemmes obtiennent le droit de choisir. Letravail de Simone de Beauvoir, et dautres intellectuels ce moment-l marqueun changement subtil, mais important dans le rà ´le de lintellectuel franais.Auparavant, lintellectuel a luttà © pour la justice quelque soit le domaineaffectà ©, mais de plus en plus,le   nouveau intellectuel   ne seprononce sur les discussions dans son domaine de spà ©cialisme. Il parait que cegenre dintellectuel ne veut pas entrer dans les discussions au dehors de sondomaine de compà ©tence. Ladà ©sillusion des annà ©es 70 est soulignà ©e aussi par la publication de   TheGoulag Archipelago   par Alexander Solzhenitsyn. Cette publicationternisse limage de la Russie sous le rà ©gime de Stalin, et avec les preuves dugà ©nocide au Cambodge, les intellectuels deviennent anti-marxiste. Lesidà ©ologies des partisans communistes, et donc les intellectuels qui leur ontsoutenu sont mis en question pour la premià ¨re fois. Les jeunes intellectuelscomme Bernard-Henri Là ©vy et Andrà © Glucksmann, qui ont à ©tà © partisans du PCF,lient le communisme avec le fascisme, et retirent leur soutien. En juin 1979,Sartre demande au Prà ©sident daider le peuple vietnamien, ce qui montre queSartre est devenu aussi anti-communiste. PierreBourdieu est un autre adversaire du travail des intellectuels. Il dà ©critlintellectuel dans ses ouvrages,   La distinction, Homo academicus etLes Rà ¨gles de lart  , plutà ´t comme un genre dhomme de politique,au lieu dun hà ©ro du peuple. La position de lintellectuel aujourdhui Vuque la critique contre les intellectuels ne cesse pas augmenter, on sedemande alors si lintellectuel franais est une espà ¨ce en voie dedisparition. Peut-etre faut-il rà ©definir la description de lintellectuel.Winnock à ©crit  :   Les intellectuels ont aussi un rà ´le organique exercer, etreles ouvriers de cette dà ©mocratie impossible, rà ©gime de libertà © limità ©e,dà ©galità © approximative et de fraternità © intermittente (..)Plus large, plus profond, plus durable que les cris despamphlà ©taires et les manifestes des pà ©titionnaires, cest le travail quotidiendes intellectuels anonymes comme à ©ducateurs notamment qui me parait devoirà ªtre reconnu comme le và ©ritable contre-pouvoir, la fois critique etorganique, au sein de la socià ©tà © dà ©mocratique  . Dansson ouvrage, Le Dictionnaire des Intellectuels Winnock parle plutà ´t desà ©và ©nements au lieu des intellectuels individuels, il parait alors quelintellectuel lui-mà ªme, nexiste plus. Les mortes des personnagesimportantes pendant les annà ©es 90, comme Marguerite Duras, Franois Furet etGilles Deleuze soutiennent cette idà ©e, mais il est peut-à ªtre un peu simpliste.En à ©crivant un tel ouvrage, Winnock illustre le fait que les franais restenttoujours fascinà ©s par les intellectuels impressifs. En fait, pendant lesannà ©es 80, plus de 30 livres sont publià ©s au sujet des intellectuels, etdepuis 1990, plus de 80 livres en plus ont à ©tà © à ©crits. Il semble que lesfranais ne sont pas encore prà ªts oublier les intellectuels respectà ©s. Malgrà ©les observations de Winnock et le silence des intellectuels pendant les annà ©es 80,il est à ©vident quaux annà ©es 90, les intellectuels recommencent trouver leur voix.Les discussions politiques concernant les guerres en Bosnie, en Croatie, eten Iraq provoquent les interventions intellectuelles. En 1995, Juppà © proposeun plan de rà ©forme qui provoque les grà ¨ves et les manifestations. Lesintellectuels jouent un rà ´le important en critiquant ces rà ©formes, ils sontdivisà ©s en deux partis, ceux qui soutiennent les rà ©formes, et ceux quià ©crivent des pà ©titions contre celles-ci. Cette   guerre depà ©titions   souligne aussi la diffà ©rence entre les intellectuels universels,et ceux qui ont plus de spà ©cialisme dans le domaine de laide sociale. Pendantces discussions, lintellectuel franais parait comme un citoyen parmi tout lemonde au lieu dun guide suprà ªme. Ily a une autre intervention quil faut mentionner. En 1999, Debray va Kosovopendant le conflit. À son retour, Le Monde publie une   lettredun voyageur au Prà ©sident de la Rà ©publique  , dans laquelle Debrayattaque lOTAN. Les parallà ¨les entre cette lettre et le soutien donnà © au PCFet les idà ©ologies fascistes dans les annà ©es passà ©es sont à ©videntes. Ceci nedonne pas une bonne impression des intellectuels laube dun nouveaumillenium. Les mà ©dias Lesnouveaux mà ©dias jouent un rà ´le important dans là ©volution des intellectuels.On peut les voir comme une avance bienvenue pour intellectuel, ils leurdonnent loccasion de communiquer ses idà ©es plus efficacement, mais lesnouveaux mà ©dias sont aussi considà ©rà ©s comme une menace. Rà ©gis Debray est unintellectuel qui les critique. Selon lui  : Là ¨rede lintelligentsia sera celle de la plus grande inintelligence. En effet, ily a un rapport inverse entre la valeur informative dun message et sacommunicabilità ©Ã‚   Ilsemble que lavance des nouveaux mà ©dias mine limportance et le prestige desintellectuels. Ceci parait contradictoire lidà ©e originale delintellectuel. Les mà ©dias donnent aux intellectuels loccasion datteindre unplus grand public. En effet, il est grà ¢ce la presse à ©crite que lesDreyfusards ont eu du succà ¨s il y a cent ans mais cependant, maintenant on estplus mà ©fiant de la presse et les mà ©dias. Il est à ©vident quaujourdhui laplupart des à ©là ¨ves vont luniversità ©, le niveau dà ©ducation est plus haut etcomme rà ©sultat, les gens questionnent les opinions des intellectuels au lieu deles acceptà ©es sans questions. Conclusion Onne peut pas discuter que le rà ´le de lintellectuel franais a à ©voluà © beaucoupau cours du sià ¨cle. Laffaire Dreyfus et les à ©và ©nements de mai 1968 peuvent à ªtrevu comme les points culminants pendant le sià ¨cle, mais il est aussiincontestable que les intellectuels franais ont jouà © un rà ´le important dans laplupart des discussions controversà ©es. Bien quils soient toujours lià ©s auxpartis politiques, lintellectuel est vu comme quelquun qui peut, avec sonnom et son prestige, lutter pour la justice surtout oà ¹ il faut une voiximpartial et forte. Larà ©putation de lintellectuel à ©tait bouleversà ©e pendant les annà ©es 50, lesoutien du PCF à ©tait un erreur grave, mais le fait quils ont retirà © leursoutien montre que les idà ©ologies changent et les intellectuels ont le droit dechanger leur avis. Aujourdhui on voit que les intellectuels ne sont pasaussi vite daffirmer leurs affiliations politiques, pendant les à ©lections en2002 les intellectuels à ©taient notamment silencieux. Onvoit aussi que la description dun intellectuel a changà © aussi. Il y a probablementdeux types, ceux que lon appelle   universelle  , et ceux quiprà ©fà ¨re travailler dans un domaine plus spà ©cifique. Le fait que son rà ´lecontinue de change ne veut pas dire que la fin est arrivà ©e pour lesintellectuels, tout ce quil veut dire est que les intellectuels doiventà ©voluer aussi pour rester en contact avec le peuple. Lesmà ©dias jouent aussi un rà ´le important et avec lavance des nouvellestechnologies, comme linternet par exemple, il faut attendre encore quelquesannà ©es avant de voir ce que limpact sera. Nà ©anmoins il est à ©vident que lapresse et les mà ©dias ont toujours un rà ´le important. Dansle futur, il est peut-à ªtre vrai que lon va parler de la  personnalità ©Ã‚   au lieu de   lintellectuel  , mais pourle moment, la fascination des franais et lestime quils ont pour lesintellectuels, assurent que les intellectuels ont toujours une place dans lasocià ©tà © franaise. Bibliographie Lesintellectuels en France de lAffaire Dreyfus nos jours, Pascal Ory etJean-Franois Sirelli, Paris, A. Colin, 1986 Lesià ¨cle des intellectuels, Michel Winock, Paris, Seuil, 1997. Lediable en tà ªte, Bernand-Henri Là ©vy, Paris, B.Grasset, 1984. ContemporaryFrench Cultures and Societies, Frà ©dà ©ric Royall, Peter Lang, 2004. Francetakes its intellectuals to heart, Louis Oppenheim, The Chronicle Review,edition 7 September 2001.

Children’s Overuse of Technology

Children’s use of technology most affects a person’s cognitive development by eliminating the time that children have for other activities like proper sleep, a basketball game in the park, or just a face to face chat with a group of friends. Technology is not a proper substitute for a play ground, parks or a chat with friends where a child can find unlimited opportunities to learn valuable information about how they fit in the real world. A child’s cognitive development is not harmed directly by technology so much as it is harmed indirectly by abstaining from physical activities, failing to get proper sleep, or not interacting with peers. A study by the Kaiser foundation illustrates the enormous time children spend multi – tasking each day through technology, â€Å"Today’s youth pack a total of 10 hours and 45 minutes worth of media content into those daily 7 1/2 hours – an increase of almost 2 1/4 hours of media exposure per day over the past five years† (Henry J. Kaiser Foundation 2010, p. 1). It is not to suggest that technology plays no role in increasing a child’s cognitive development; it is to suggest that there is a widening gap between the time a child entertains themselves with technology and the moments that he or she allocate to alternatives activities. The benefits children receive from non – technology based activities are found in many research studies on cognitive development; for example, a study by preeminent sleep theorist Dr. Sadeh showed that the cognitive abilities of elementary school children deprived of just one hours night sleep would be reduced by two years the following morning (Sadeh, Gruber & Ravi 2003, p. 444 -445). Children cannot be engaged in interactive play with their peers, sleep or physical exercise which are so critical to their development, due to an overuse of isolating technological activities such as cell phones, television and video games. Children who spend too much time with technology find themselves isolated from their peers. Leading theorists like Jean Piaget understood the importance of peer interaction as a research tool that provides children with unlimited opportunities to evaluate other people’s concept of how to deal with situations that happen in the world. According to Piaget, â€Å"children gained knowledge about the world through their interaction with others and incorporated that information into cognitive structures† (Piaget 1962, p. 257). Piaget saw unscripted play as a way for children to gain new social skills by assimilating a peer’s new ideas and changing their understanding of the world to accommodate them. Children exposed to peer play gain the skill set which will allow them to progress away from an egocentric view point in which they are the center of the universe to a more abstract vision of the world that encompasses the morals needs of society. A child that has gained understanding of this is said to gain the social, emotional, and cognitive skills and behaviors that they need in order to be successful people in the world. Piaget would find educational value in any technology that allows children the opportunity to freely experiment with their understanding of the world. From the preoperational through the operational stage, children receive educational experiences even from basic technology like karaoke machines or cell phones that provide them the opportunity to test their language skills through experimentation. A child in the preoperational stage will use the karaoke machine in symbolic play to pretend to be a rock star. The operational stage children that are further along on their cognitive development might use a cell phone share ideas on what it is like to be in a rock group. However, the most promising use of technology to Piaget would be software that appears to emulate his theory of assimilation and accommodation. Indeed, Piaget believed that children learned best when a constant flow of information was acquired from others that either reinforced or challenged their perception of themselves in the world. An example of technology that might provide this is the game SimCity, which was marketed as providing people with the opportunity to test their knowledge of cities while learning to build one of their own. However, eventually Piaget would find games like this to be too restrictive in their opportunities for players to decide whether to change their self-constructs of city- life based on the limited real life scenarios in the game. The child is presented with or guided into possible actions by the software program and made to believe there are no limitations to the options one can take; however, software actions are very â€Å"narrow and circumscribed, and – what is even more important for the child – it is defined by the game developer and the manufacturer instead of by the child† (Provenzo, 1991, 1994). According to Piaget (1972), play can provide many opportunities for children to actively learn in a manner that is more intuitive than a direct instruction lesson. Piaget’s philosophy about play is validated by the following research. A study on rats that played rough with each other had a higher degree of neurotropic factor transcripts created in their brains’ cortexes than a rat raised in isolation (Gordon, Burke, Watson &Panskepp 2003, p. 17-20). Research by Diamond et al. (1966) on the thickening of a rat’s cortex showed that when a rat was allowed to freely assimilate and accommodate within an â€Å"enriched environment† (Krech, Rosenzweig& Bennett, 1960, p. 09-513) its cortex was affected profoundly as compared to other rats’ cortexes that were raised in non-enriched environments (p. 117-125). The research was designed to compare the thickening in the cortex of several rats’ brains raised in three different environments: one raised in isolation, three rats in a cage that emulated their natural environment, and three that were placed in the enriched environment. An enriched environment is defined as a cage that has enough room to accommodate the rats and toys that are added at specific intervals during their stay (Krech et al. 960, p. 509- 513). The rats were placed in the environment from 4 days to 80 days, and afterwards the cortexes were removed for comparison (Diamond et al. 1966, p. 117-125). A second set of experiments were designed to isolate factors like age or stress, which were constantly changing to reach the maximum thickening of the cortex. Data comparisons between the cortexes of the rats raised in the impoverished environments and the lone rat were measured, but not compared; however, further experimentation, in this maybe warranted in order to show the effect of peer play. In more play directed study, it was seen that rats that had played rough with each other had brains with a higher degree of neurotropic factors created in the brains’ cortex than a rat raised in isolation (Beatty, Dodge, Dodge, White & Panskepp 1982, p. 417-422). Another study of rats in social isolation showed an even more dramatic need for interactive play when a rat failed to respond with the proper defense mechanism when dealing with a dominant male rat. The study showed that rats that played with peers were successful in assimilating into society by using the tools they learned from peer interaction, much like Lev Vygotsky’s studies showed children did as well (Foroud & Pellis 2003, p. 35-43). Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky believed that a child’s learning process or cognitive development was not based on a solitary exploration of the world, but the influences of the child’s culture, environment or knowledgeable adults. Vygotsky’s studies were based on the significant improvement that children achieved on tests when they worked with an adult as compared to working alone. The test results for children working independently rarely reached the level of a child that had been taught by an adult. In the process of this adult guided development, â€Å"the child not only matures, but is rearmed. It is this â€Å"rearming† that accounts for a great deal of development and change we can that accounts for a great deal of the development and change we can observe as we follow the transition from child to civilized adult† (Luria & Vygotsky, 1992, p. 110). The times children meet with a knowledgeable peer or adult to learn a great deal of understanding is gained by the child. The growth of the child that works with an adult can be observed throughout their lives till they reach adulthood. Vygotsky would find potential in today’s technology and hope for the software technology of tomorrow that he would perceive as supporting his theory of the Zone of Proximal Distance. His theory states: â€Å"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers [is greater]† (Vygotsky 1978, p. 6). The technology that was capable of teaching critical thinking, analysis and problem solving skills by joining them together to learn about any subject matter. Present technology does not have the natural language skills necessary to be able to respond to a child’s unlimited questions; however, games can guide a child’s thought process by the designer’s implementation of scaffolding techniques into the program. For instance, some games like Oregon Trail are appropriate educational opportunities for learning in the classroom. The game is a form of computer mediated instruction that uses information inserted into the program (scaffolding techniques) to help students complete the tasks that are important to perform an activity; however, it is limited in value since it does not allow children to interact with a knowledgeable adult or peer. Games that allow multiple players to work towards a common goal are available online and could be used to teach children in the way Vygotsky envisioned. Games like The Penguin Club or Halo are designed to allow children to work together towards a common goal; however, they are created to entertain and not to teach. Video games must be designed to capture a child’s interest and be tested to show how they improve a child’s education, or they will remain another example of a technology whose use is restricted solely to household entertainment. Other examples of technology that children use for household entertainment are described in the following study including which technologies are preferred by both sexes and which are preferred by a specific sex. â€Å"Children are far more likely to use technology for entertainment purposes to download music, chat on the social network, email friends or lay video games than do research on a topic of interest than for education† (Subrahmanyam, Greenfield, Kraut & Gross 2001, p. 7-30). The study shows boys and girls are likely to use the same technology for the same hours in school. However, after school hours boys were far more likely to play video games than girls. On the contrary, girls were far more likely to use their cell phones to text friends or communicate on the social network than their male counterparts. Both girls and boys still watched television more than any other technology. The study focused primarily on the type of technology a child used to entertain him or her self; however, the study did not delve into the effects technology use had on a child. Grant money has been expanded for research to investigate new social concerns about technology ranging from the possibilities of brain tumors brought about by excessive use of cell phones, desensitizing affects of violent video games on children towards real violence, and attention span problems caused by television and video games. A recent research study on the effects of children playing violent video games and their desensitizing effect on a child’s view of real life has challenged long held tenets of parents and researchers alike. Bowen and Spaniol (2011) designed a study to compare the emotional arousal state and long term memory of individuals that played violent video game as compared to those that did not. The participants viewed 150 photos of scenes that were designed to get a positive, negative, or natural response from the individuals. One hour later the people were asked once again to observe the scenes and this time 150 additional photos were added. The researcher then asked the individuals if they indeed had seen the photos previously and the results were recorded. Afterwards, the students were given a self-assessment test that asked them questions about their emotional state. Researchers predicted the results would show that the participants that played violent video games would remember less of the photos and have a lower level of emotional arousal. The study showed that the results were in favor of the null hypothesis and that there was no significant difference in the long term memory or emotional state of the participant that played video games and the individuals that did not. This study questioned earlier held opinions that violent video indeed caused children to be less sensitive to real life violence. Research by Carnagey, Anderson and Bushman (2007) evaluated the physiological response of individuals that watched a ten minute video showing real-life violence after playing their choice of a violent game or non-violent game for twenty minutes. The individuals that played the violent video game were predicted to have a lowerheart beat and galvanic skin response than the non violent video game watchers. The violent video players did show a lower heart rate and galvanic than the non-violent game players and were considered to be desensitized to violence (p. 489-496). The conflicting results help illustrate how little is known to whether video game technology as any direct adverse on the cognitive development of children that the concerns of society have suggested. Furthermore, studies on the effect of radio waves on heavy long term users of cell phones suggest different conclusions leading to question about its adverse affects on children as well. One study which evaluated brain tumor risk in relation to long term mobile use showed no increase in cancer in individuals that used cellphones excessively over the last ten years (Cardis 2010, p. 14). Another study showed that the brain glucose metabolism rates were significantly higher when using a cell phone causing concern that there may be negative effects from radio signals delivered to the brain (Volkow et al. 001, p. 808-813). It appears that additional research on technology is required, as was expended on television earlier in order to get a clearer picture of its effect on children. Television viewing time at a mean age of 14 years was associated with â€Å"elevated risk for attention difficulties, frequent failure to complete homework assignments, frequent boredom at school, failure to complete high school, poor grades, negative attitudes about school (i. e. hates school) overall academic failure in secondary school, and failure to obtain post-secondary (eg, college, university, training school) education† (Johnson et al. 2007, 481). The Research by Zimmerman and Christakis (2007) showed that six and seven year old children, who had watched an average of three hours of television a day as three year olds, had lower cognitive achievement scores on the Peabody Individual Achievement test for reading recognition and reading comprehension (473-479). Less sedentary activities that children do when not playing video games show a much clearer picture of the benefit they provided to a child’s cognitive development than any adverse effect technology does. Children who rode bicycles, played basketball or performed other aerobic activities at least three times a week for sixty minutes and spent an equal amount of time on muscle and bone strengthening workouts three times a week or more had significantly better grades than the children who did not (Coe, Pivarnik, Woomack, Reeves &Malina 2006, p. 515-1519). In conclusion, software technology as advanced as it may seem is not robust enough to support the theories of Piaget or Vygotsky. Advances in Artificial Intelligence for natural language would be required to make either Piaget or Vygotsky theories close to a real life learning experience. A computer game would need to be able to understand the thoughts voiced by a child and be able to respond to them fluently to recreate a real life experience. That software for video games is far from being developed. A child’s ability to learn from a computer as if it was a teacher is limited by how well the software developer provides guidance within the program to complete each task. A child will never get the freedom to explore and change his or her constructs in the world of technology as he or she can in the real world. In this day of modern technology and the information highway, it may seem ironic that the best thing a child can do to develop his or her cognitive development is to turn the television, video game or cell phone off and go for a bike ride.

Essays Research Papers - the Conspiracy

Essays Research Papers - the Conspiracy Here's What I Know About Essays Research Papers Not all sites deliver such a function. As an advertising student, you most likely have access to a plethora of resources like your college library and clearly, the net, to think of terrific research paper topics. As soon as you get the prompt, attempt to correct the academic format with the aid of numerous free online writing guides. There aren't many measures to that you're able to include in all your research papers are a few experiments which you have conducted related to the topic or responses from real folks. Avoid writing about topics that you just have inconclusive details. What follows is an extensive collection of the most intriguing research topics to have you started. You could opt for a topic that provides guidelines, directions or expresses significance explanations on a particular topic. Picking an intriguing topic will allow you to compose the paper faster and create the process more engaging and enjoyable. Who Else Wants to Learn About Essays Research Papers? Just consider it how many amazing things you may do instead of boring writing. When it comes to experience, working with a person who has worked on similar papers means they understand the requirements and rules. Daily blogging will allow me to close out my day by gathering my ideas and collecting them in 1 place. Additionally, you must do lots of research, or so the moment, needed for writing is even longer. Writing a financial paper can be a difficult task on account of the analysis and integration of numbers. The outline will allow you to organize your work in that you're now able to understand where to compose your introduction, content, and conclusion. A problem is a concept upon which you may take a stand. Start With an Outline Mapping out your essay before you get started writing helps you keep on point. Rumors, Lies and Essays Research Papers If you get essays online, it's really important to understand whether the work is still in process or has been finished. To start with, it's important for one to examine the sort of writers that a writing company has. If you're writing you probably wish to write successfully and have work that you're proud of. Additionally, the second chapter, regarding the literature demands the most time. Hearsay, Lies and Essays Research Papers Completing a research paper is most likely among the most well-known assignments not depending upon your academic level and subjects. Dissertation writing must be ideal, and it's the most important for lots of students. Occasionally a professor doesn't include all detail, especially should they have been teaching a course for a lengthy time. When you compose a research paper you build upon what you know about the topic and make a deliberate attempt to learn what experts know. For both types of Nursing research papers, dependable and authentic sources ought to be concerned fo r assembling relevant data and data. Organizing your research work is crucial. You can both utilize personal experience and cover new nuances for you, depending on the research of different authors and drawing your own personal conclusions. Certainly, psychology is among the most intriguing branches of science out there. A paper is always simpler to write if you're interested in this issue, and you're going to be more motivated to do in-depth research and compose a paper that actually covers the whole subject. The research paper grants you the chance to think seriously about some situation. Each research paper can be revised if the very first draft doesn't fulfill your needs. When you begin writing your research paper, it is vital to relate each component of your paper relate each other.

Spanish Prepositions De and Desde

Because they can both mean from, the Spanish prepositions desde and de are easily confused. And the fact that they sometimes are interchangeable — for example, both de aquà ­ al centro and desde aquà ­ al centro can be used for from here to downtown. — doesnt help matters. When to Use Desde However, as a general rule, it can be said that desde more strongly indicates motion from a location. To give two examples, desde commonly would be used in sentences such as Echà ³ el libro desde el coche (he threw the book from the car) and Corrià ³ desde la playa (he ran from the beach). It can similarly be used where the emphasis is on the original location rather than the destination. Desde also is used with other prepositions: desde arriba (from above), desde dentro (from inside), desde abajo (from underneath). Note that these phrases tend to indicate motion from the specified area. It is also common with time phrases. When to Use De There are numerous cases where de, not desde, must be used to translate from. Many of those are instances wherein the translation of can be substituted for from, even if awkwardly. Examples: Soy de los Estados Unidos. (Im from the United States. Im of the United States.) Sacà ³ el dinero de la bolsa. (She took the money from the purse. She took the money of the purse.) Sometimes the preposition por can be used to mean from: Està ¡ debilitado por hambre. (He is weak from hunger.) Sample Sentences Using De and Desde To Mean 'From' You can see more about how these prepositions are used in these sentences: Desde aquà ­ se ve todos los sitios turà ­sticos. (From here all the tourist sites are seen. Here, the emphasis is on the place to be in order to see the sites.)Desde siempre he sabido que la mà ºsica era algo muy importante. Since forever I have known that music is something very important. Desde siempre is a fairly common time phrase.)Esculpià ³ la estatua de piedra muy cara. (She sculpted the statue from very expensive stone. From in the translation could substitute for of.)Desde hace un aà ±o hasta dos meses, mi amiga estaba a cargo de la programacià ³n de la red. (From a year ago until two months ago, my friend was in charge of network programming. This is another example of desde in a time expression.) ¡Encuentra excelentes ofertas de vuelos desde Nueva York a Ciudad de Mà ©xico y ahorra con el mejor precio! (Find excellent sales of flights from New York to Mexico City and save with the best price! The flight involves motion from New York City.)El actor famoso dijo que sufrià ³ de depresion y adicciones. (The famous actor said he suffered from depression and addictions. De is used for from when the preposition is used to state the cause of something.)Mi novio es de un familia rica. (My boyfriend is from a rich family. From here could be substituted with of.)El presidente vivià ³ de 1917 a 1962. (The president lived from 1917 to 1962. De is used with the time element.)